Human Exploration and the Critique of Colonization

For centuries, humans have been explorers, constantly driven by the innate desire to discover new territories. From the survival-driven migrations of the nomadic Homo Erectus from Africa to Europe, to modern-day humans traveling for adventure, our species has always been characterized by a propensity to roam and migrate. However, the motivations behind these explorations have evolved over time. In the 15th to 19th centuries, European nations embarked on expeditions not just for discovery, but to expand their empires and assert global dominance.

Spain, for instance, was famously referred to as "The empire on which the sun never sets" due to its vast colonial reach.

During this era of expansion, European explorers encountered "new worlds" that were already inhabited by diverse cultures, some of which had thrived for centuries. The initial intent of exploration quickly shifted towards colonization, as these explorers sought to exert control over the so-called "savages" inhabiting these lands. Colonialism, a practice of extending control over weaker peoples or areas, often overlooked the moral implications of such actions. Yet, some contemporaneous writers and artists courageously critiqued colonization, reflecting ahead-of-their-time ideas about the dehumanization of other civilizations. Notably, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz's "Loa to the Divine Narcissus" and William Shakespeare's "The Tempest" stand as literary critiques of colonization, using their characters to convey the authors' forward-thinking perspectives.

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz: A Voice of Resistance

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, born in 1651 in colonial Mexico, emerged as a formidable critic of the Spanish Inquisition's colonizing efforts. As a "mestiza," a person of mixed Native and Spanish descent, Sor Juana possessed a unique vantage point that allowed her to empathize deeply with both cultures. Her thirst for knowledge led her to disguise herself as a man to attend the University of Mexico, reflecting her defiance against societal norms. Her decision to become a nun further underscored her commitment to intellectual pursuits over traditional roles of marriage.

In "Loa to the Divine Narcissus," Sor Juana ingeniously employs allegory to critique the colonization of Aztec society. The play opens with Music, representing the natives, proclaiming their devotion to the God of the Seed through sacrificial rituals for a bountiful harvest. The characters Occident and America symbolize the natives, while Religion and Zeal, depicted as Spanish colonizers, denounce their worship as idolatry. Despite the coercive attempts to convert them, America and Occident refuse to abandon their deity. Religion and Zeal's insistence on conversion underscores the imperialist mindset that sought to erase indigenous beliefs under the guise of Christian charity.

Sor Juana's portrayal of America and Occident's steadfastness in their faith serves as a poignant reflection of the Aztecs' resistance during the Spanish invasion. The conflict between Zeal, the conqueror, and Religion, the persuader, mirrors the broader struggle for religious and political dominance. The indigenous characters' refusal to convert, despite the looming threat of violence, highlights their unwavering devotion to their cultural heritage. Through America’s final declaration, "And I will worship my own gods!" (de la Cruz 1523), Sor Juana underscores the resilience of the natives amidst the oppressive forces of colonization.

William Shakespeare: Critiquing Imperialism Through Drama

William Shakespeare, born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, England, lived during a time when European nations were fervently expanding their empires. England, in particular, was a major imperialist power, and its expansionist endeavors were in full swing during Shakespeare's lifetime. This historical context undoubtedly influenced his perspectives on colonialism, as reflected in one of his final plays, "The Tempest."

"The Tempest" serves as a nuanced critique of colonization, with its characters embodying the dynamics between colonizers and indigenous peoples. The play follows Prospero, a sorcerer and former Duke of Naples, who becomes an exile and seizes control of an island inhabited by Caliban, a native, and Ariel, a spirit. Prospero's arrival and subsequent subjugation of Caliban symbolize the colonial encounter, where the foreigner claims ownership and dominance over the native land.

Caliban's lament over his lost sovereignty, "This Island’s mine by Sycorax my mother, / Which thou tak’st from me" (Shakespeare I.ii.447-483), encapsulates the anguish of indigenous peoples who had their land stripped away by colonizers. The exploitation of Caliban extends beyond Prospero; Stephano and Trinculo, other shipwrecked characters, plot to keep Caliban intoxicated to enslave him, further illustrating the dehumanizing tactics of imperialists.

Scholars like Ronald Takaki have drawn parallels between Shakespeare's portrayal of Caliban and the English colonization of Ireland, where the Irish were similarly viewed as "savages" by the English. This comparison underscores the broader critique of colonial attitudes towards the "other," as embodied in Caliban's character. Furthermore, through Gonzalo's speech quoting Michel de Montaigne's anti-colonial essay "Of Cannibals," Shakespeare aligns himself with Montaigne's critique of European perceptions of indigenous peoples. By incorporating this perspective, Shakespeare challenges the prevailing imperialist ideologies of his time.

Conclusion: A Literary Rebellion Against Colonization

Both Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz and William Shakespeare deftly utilized their literary works to challenge the colonial narratives of their respective eras. Through allegory and drama, they exposed the injustices and dehumanization inherent in the imperialist enterprise. Sor Juana's "Loa to the Divine Narcissus" and Shakespeare's "The Tempest" stand as enduring critiques of the political and religious colonization of foreign lands by European powers. Their characters, representing both the colonizers and the colonized, serve as mirrors reflecting the complexities and moral dilemmas of their societies. Through their works, these authors not only entertained but also provoked critical thought, encouraging audiences to question the ethics of imperialism and embrace a more empathetic understanding of diverse cultures. By examining these plays, we gain valuable insights into the historical and cultural contexts that shaped their creation, as well as the enduring relevance of their messages in contemporary discussions about colonialism and its legacies.

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