Research Integration: Person-Centered Therapy 

After learning about and reflecting on all of the counseling theories this semester, I believe that person-centered counseling aligns with my beliefs and worldview. Person-centered counseling is rooted in the third force and is considered humanistic therapy (Neukrug, 2011). All the theories I connected with were within this force, which focuses heavily on the individual, exploring their worldview and truth. Out of these, I found that I connected most with person-centered therapy. In this paper, I will discuss various aspects of person-centered theory and therapy, describing how it aligns or doesn't align with my beliefs, values, and overall worldview.

Founder of Person-Centered Counseling

The founder of person-centered therapy was Carl Rogers (Neukrug, 2011). According to Neukrug (2011), in pages summarizing Rogers' life, he grew up in a strict yet tightly-knit home with his parents and six siblings. The strict nature of his parents fostered his development of independence and self-discipline; he performed exceptionally well throughout his schooling. He attended the University of Wisconsin, earning an undergraduate degree in history, despite initially studying agriculture and later switching to religion. This led to an exploration of his beliefs and values. Initially entering the ministry, he eventually left to pursue a master's and then a doctoral degree in psychology at Columbia University (Neukrug, 2011).

Upon completing his doctorate, Rogers became a child psychologist at the Rochester Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, serving as the director of the Child Study Department. Simultaneously, he began studying Otto Rank's existential-humanistic framework. He later achieved the rank of full professor at Ohio State University and secured a position at the University of Chicago, where he opened a counseling center. Throughout this period, he also served as the president of the American Psychological Association. His career later took him to the University of Wisconsin and then to a research position in La Jolla, California. Besides his professional accomplishments, Rogers was also a prolific writer; he received numerous awards and accolades, including the Nobel Peace Prize (Neukrug, 2011).

On a personal level, Rogers married Helen Elliott shortly after completing his undergraduate studies. They had two children: a son, who became a medical doctor, and a daughter, Natalie, who followed her father into the field of psychology, gaining recognition for her use of expressive arts therapy (Neukrug, 2011).

Philosophical Influences and Stance

Rogers was influenced by many others before him when creating his theory (Neukrug, 2011). One was Abraham Maslow and his concept of self-actualization (Neukrug, 2011). Another was Otto Rank, who emphasized the importance of an orientation to the present, had a strong belief in the power of the clients to change, and placed emphasis on the therapeutic relationship (Neukrug, 2011). John Dewey stressed reflection and experience while learning (Neukrug, 2011). Soren Kierkegaard also had an influence; he believed that subjectivity affects people's choices (Neukrug, 2011).

Before reading and learning about these other influencers, I did not know much about them. I was, of course, familiar with the work of Abraham Maslow and have always loved his concept of the hierarchy of needs. It makes sense to me that Rogers was influenced by Maslow because many of the concepts of person-centered therapy seem very connected to Maslow's ideas. This is true for the others as well, though I was not as familiar with them and their ideas before learning about them recently.
Free Will Versus Determinism

Person-centered therapy is considered anti-deterministic (Neukrug, 2011). Rogers (1961) discusses the "dilemma" of free will and determinism. Essentially, a person who is fully functioning, or in the optimum of therapy, experiences free will. Their choices will be more effectively implemented in their behavior. Conversely, someone who is not fully functioning or who is experiencing incongruence cannot always function in the situations or manners that they choose. The incongruences will interfere and will prohibit or distort what is wanted in some way; it will not be completely satisfying for the individual or exactly what they had hoped for. The congruent or fully functioning person experiences and utilizes what they voluntarily choose (Rogers, 1961).

I personally believe that we, as humans, have free will, at least to some extent. I think that this is especially true when we are congruent with ourselves and are able to trust ourselves to make decisions and follow what we wish to do. I acknowledge that those incongruent with themselves will not be able to make free choices because of those incongruences holding them back. Also, those who are incongruent with themselves may not know what they actually want, making a declaration of free will for these individuals difficult.

Holistic Versus Atomistic View of Humans

This theory holds a holistic view of humans. Rogers (1951) discusses how individuals react as an "organized whole" to their own phenomenal field. He believed that one of the most basic characteristics of life is the tendency toward "total, organized, goal-directed responses" (Rogers, 1951, p. 487). He believed that this is true for both biological and psychological responses.
Before this class, I was not sure I had ever thought about this aspect of human life. With that in mind, it's not easy to automatically concur with Rogers' views. However, I believe I do share some of his ideas. As I mentioned, all of the theories in the third force, including Gestalt therapy, deeply resonates with me. This view reminds me precisely of Gestalt therapy. I think that we, as humans, tend to react and live as whole people.

Phenomenological Versus Objective Reality

According to Rogers (1951), people react to the world as they experience and perceive it, and their perceptual field is their reality. There is no absolute reality, only people's perception of it. Individuals' realities are based on what they experience, even things that they are not necessarily conscious of. Rogers (1980) discusses how we all have different realities, and this is how we should think about life. He said, "It appears to me that the way of the future must be to base our lives and our education on the assumption that there are as many realities as there are persons…" (Rogers, 1980, pp. 104-105).

This raises some interesting questions when it comes to science and "factual" information. Would these things be considered "reality"? In any case, I believe that individual perception certainly matters more than an "objective reality" when it comes to life experiences. Especially in a therapeutic situation, what matters is the client's experiences and their perceptions, not what I or anyone else would consider "objective reality."

Personality Development

Major Developmental, Personality, and Learning Constructs

Several constructs or ideas need to be understood to better conceptualize this theory. The first is the actualizing tendency. Rogers (1951) believed that this is inherent in all individuals, motivating them to reach their full potential. Additionally, we have a need for positive regard - a desire to feel loved, supported, and appreciated by those around and important to us (Rogers, 1951). However, we often experience conditions of worth, when those around us place expectations and threaten to withdraw love or care if we do not respond appropriately (Neukrug, 2011). In a similar vein, inauthenticity occurs when conditions of worth are placed on an individual. Therein lies the incongruity between the person one aspires to be and who they truly are (Rogers, 1951). The organismic valuing process is the individual's tendency to lean towards those who value them positively and away from those who place conditions of worth on them (Neukrug, 2011). A fully functioning person, according to Rogers (1951), is an individual who is congruent and experiences their feelings fully and completely, thereby becoming those feelings and consequently changing their behaviors and other experiences.

Since these concepts are central to this theory, it is important to discuss and define the three core conditions. Genuineness, or congruence, means that therapists are aware of their feelings, live these feelings, and communicate them (Rogers, 1961). Empathy is when a counselor attempts to have a deep understanding of the client, perceiving the client's "hates, hopes, and fears" (Rogers, 1951). Unconditional positive regard is an attitude of warmth, positivity, and acceptance towards the client, allowing them to simply be and caring for them regardless of any circumstances (Rogers, 1961).

Nature of Humans

From this perspective, humans are born basically good (Neukrug, 2011). We are growth-oriented and forward-moving, and are born with actualizing tendencies, discussed earlier (Rogers, 1951). We move in the direction of greater self-responsibility and independence. We are also concerned with existential choice and have a desire for close relationships and socialization (Rogers, 1951). We also already have an organismic valuing process intact (Neukrug, 2011).

I like and agree with this view of the nature of humans. Even though it can be difficult to believe it all the time, I have always thought that people are basically good. I do not think anyone is born evil. I also think that we are forward-moving and have a tendency to strive to be our best selves, but sometimes things get in the way of that. So, in this sense, my thoughts and beliefs, again, align with this theory.

Role of Environment

As discussed earlier, we respond to the environment as we perceive it; there is no objective or "real" reality (Rogers, 1951). As we interact with the environment, we develop a sense of "I"; a part of an individual's perceptual field, or private world, becomes the "self" (Rogers, 1951). Values attached to experiences, even values projected onto us from others, become a part of who we are. These experiences are either integrated, ignored, or denied (Rogers, 1951). We also experience conditions of worth being placed on us by others, which can and will likely result in incongruence with the self (Neukrug, 2011).

Even though I do think that nature plays a role in the whole nature versus nurture debate, I believe that the environment really shapes us. It is our experiences and our perceptions of those experiences that mold us and create our own world. I found Rogers's belief that we either integrate, ignore, or deny experiences to be interesting, and I also found this to be true, at least in my own experience.

Nature of Maladjustment

Maladjustment or distress occurs when there is a discrepancy between the real and ideal experiences of the individual (Rogers, 1951). The individual tries to satisfy needs that are not consciously admitted and reacts to experiences that are being denied. Tension can exist if the individual is aware of this discrepancy, and anxiety can occur because he or she feels inconsistent or unintegrated (Rogers, 1951). Often, it appears that the environmental difficulties encountered are the causes of distress, but it is typically deeper than that. It has more to do with the individual's inconsistencies or discrepancies (Rogers, 1951).

I believe that the incongruity of self could indeed cause maladjustment and stress within an individual. Not truly understanding and being true to oneself can be quite dangerous, in my opinion. However, I think there may be other causes of maladjustment. For instance, I don't believe that distress in people with schizophrenia results solely from incongruity. It could also have a biological basis, among other factors. Perhaps these ideas are more intertwined than I currently understand, which is something I must delve deeper into as I develop my understanding of this theory.

Change

People have within themselves resources for understanding the self and for changing self-concepts, attitudes, and self-directed behavior. These resources can be harnessed by individuals if the correct climate is present (Rogers, 1980). Neukrug (2011) discusses the six "necessary and sufficient conditions" that Rogers believed would lead to personality change in therapy. These are: two people are in psychological contact; the client is in a state of incongruence, feeling anxious and/or vulnerable; the counselor is congruent and integrated in the relationship; the counselor expresses unconditional positive regard toward the client; the therapist expresses empathic understanding of the client's internal frame of reference, and communicates this to the client; and this communication of unconditional positive regard and empathic understanding is achieved.

According to Rogers (1951), when a client comes in for therapy, they often perceive themselves critically, feeling worthless, and judging themselves largely based on what others expect or want. The ideal self is far removed from the present self, and they also harbor negative feelings about themselves. As therapy progresses, it is common for these feelings to persist, possibly even intensifying at times. This is because they often discover feelings or attitudes that contradict their self-perception. As the client becomes aware of this and explores it, they begin to perceive themselves more realistically and become more accepting of themselves "as is" (Rogers, 1951).

As they begin to focus more on their feelings and attitudes, they will be able to examine them objectively, and these will no longer serve as a basis for "emotional self-condemnation" or approval (Rogers, 1951). This process is not easy, and it is likely that the client will, at times, feel hopeless and worthless. As change begins to occur, the client develops less fear of their own attitudes and how other people judge them, focusing more on their own values. Over time, this results in a more unified or congruent person (Rogers, 1951).

I believe that many people often struggle with who they want to be as opposed to who they really are, and it may not always be very obvious to them. Being in therapy with the core conditions present could certainly lead to change. It is intriguing that therapy could actually intensify negative feelings and self-perceptions before they improve. This makes sense, especially if the individual was not aware of their incongruence. In my view, being able to examine oneself openly and honestly and admitting that change is necessary is crucial in order to become a more unified and congruent person.

Role and Activity of the Counselor

The counselor's role is to "perceive as sensitively and accurately as possible all of the perceptual fields as they are being experienced by the client...to the full degree that the client is willing to communicate that perceptual field" (Rogers, 1951, p. 34). The counselor puts themselves aside and enters the world of the client as much as they are able to.

Relationship with the Client

According to Rogers (1961), the counselor-client relationship should be egalitarian and non-directive. The counselor should provide the three core conditions: genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard to the client. Then, the client will use this relationship to begin to create change in themselves. Rogers (1961) characterized the relationship with transparency on his part, acceptance of the client, and empathic understanding of the client. When these three things are achieved, he becomes a "companion" to his clients.

I absolutely love this frame for relationships with clients. I have always viewed counselors as helpers and equals, not as superiors or authorities. I also think that since it is the client coming in to therapy to better their life, they should be the one to lead it, just like Rogers suggests. I hope that wherever I end up in my career, I can convey this relationship with my clients.

Major Techniques Used

This kind of therapy is more rooted in feeling and attitude than technique (Neukrug, 2011). Really, the major "techniques" revert to the three core conditions that the counselor provides to the client: genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard (Rogers, 1961). There are several other important techniques or skills that accompany this as well. One is listening and/or "receiving" the client where they are (Rogers, 1961, p. 130). Rogers often discusses "receiving the client". Essentially, it means meeting the client where they are and simply being with them (Rogers, 1961). Others include the reflection of feeling, content reflection, immediacy, and confrontation (Neukrug, 2011).

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