The Complex Issues and Imperial Past of Egypt

Egypt, officially known as the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country in the northeast part of the African continent. Egypt borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and Israel to the northeast. The world’s longest river, the Nile, runs through Egypt’s capital, Cairo. Egypt was the bridge that connected Europe to Asia for the older trade routes. On land, Egypt connects Asia with Africa through the Sinai Peninsula. On the sea, Egypt has access to the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, connected by the Suez Canal.

Egypt’s strategic location caused many countries to imperialize it, including Great Britain, since the time of the Ancient Greeks.

Egypt was imperialized by the British in 1882 and achieved independence in 1922, but continues to be influenced by its imperial past today according to the CIA World Factbook. Currently, Egypt suffers from numerous issues. One of the primary issues is Egypt’s foreign debt. According to Prime Minister Mostafa Madbouly, Egypt’s foreign debt rose from $88.2 billion at the end of March to $92.64 billion in June of 2018, as reported by the Egyptian daily al-Watan. Another issue in Egypt is the corruption within the government. Due to the poor legal framework and unevenly enforced legislation, government officials often engage in criminal practices like tax evasion. GAN, a global anti-corruption organization, estimates that “Egypt has lost more than USD 37.6 billion to illicit financial flows between 2003 and 2012” (GAN). Also, serious tensions exist between different religious groups, as Egypt is home to the largest Christian community in the Middle East.

However, many Christians in Egypt have been discriminated against and attacked by Islamist extremists. According to The Guardian, in 2017, 128 Christians were killed and more than 200 were driven out of their homes. Additionally, in the same year, more than 15 girls were kidnapped and forced to marry Muslims to convert to Islam in just the Minya governorate (The Guardian). The current status of Egypt traces back to its imperial past. During the first half of the 1800s, Egypt spent a lot of money on industrialization and modernization. During the second half of the 1800s, Egypt needed money desperately to continue these projects. Under pressure, Egypt took loans from Europeans. Initially, everything worked well and Egypt took on more loans.

However, Egypt soon found itself not gaining enough money to repay its debt. In 1863, Egypt's debt was £3.3 million, yet by 1876, just 13 years later, it had increased 23 times to £68.5 million, while revenues only increased five times (CADTM). Egypt went bankrupt in 1875 (Wikipedia) and was forced to suspend repayments and accept the dual control of France and Britain through the Public Debt Fund. The Egyptians were displeased and revolted. Britain seized this opportunity and went to war with Egypt in what is known as the Anglo-Egyptian War. Britain eventually won in 1882 and assumed control of Egypt (Wikipedia).

The strategic location of Egypt and the Suez Canal, a man-made waterway, served as important motivation for the British. This canal provided a shorter sea route to Asia, leading to more trade and cheaper transportation. It also simplified control over India, Britain's wealthiest colony. Britain also had investments and infrastructure in Egypt. Before coming under British control, Egypt had begun selling shares of the country's infrastructure and granting various concessions in an attempt to repay its debt. Perhaps the most significant of these was the Suez Canal Company, which Egypt handed over in 1875 (Wikipedia).

If Egypt had successfully revolted, Britain would lose these properties. Another motivating factor for Britain was the cotton plantation in Egypt. While Britain's textile industry was burgeoning, its cotton production was lagging, thus alternative sources were sought. Egyptian cotton, noted for its high quality, was one such source. Furthermore, Britain discovered that the Gezira area, which lies between the White Nile and the Blue Nile, was perfect for growing cotton. By 1914, cotton made up 90 percent of Egypt's exports (GCC News).

Besides these practical reasons, there was also the matter of preserving dignity. If Egypt had successfully revolted while Britain was in dual control with France, it would have signaled Britain's weakness. Queen Victoria once expressed that for the sake of securing a "more dignified position" for Britain, its troops should remain in Egypt (Macrohistory). Throughout its rule, Britain governed Egypt indirectly, maintaining a form of protectorate while allowing for an Egyptian government.

However, each minister would have British advisers to "assist" them, and the advisers' opinions were usually conclusive. Lutsky, an Egyptian citizen, said, "the cabinet and the Khedive himself were in the same position; all power in Egypt was in the hands of a British administrator" (Lutsky, n.d.). Attempts were made to challenge British officers, but they were silenced, and Britain steadily increased control over the government. Britain's near-absolute rule heavily affected life for Egyptians. The main positive impact was the development of better dams, railways, and roads throughout the country. In Dr. Blackie's "Comprehensive Atlas," published in 1883, it says, "the railway, which then stopped at Assiut, 257 miles from Cairo, has now been extended past Luxor and Aswan to Shellal, 586 miles from Cairo…" (What Britain Has Done for Egypt). These railroads made travel faster and more comfortable. Although the British improved the infrastructures, they did very little to improve the living standard for the Egyptians.

Local businesses were hurt when competing with European products, causing them to lose their jobs. The education system was not improved, resulting in the continued poor level of literacy across Egypt (Imperialism in Egypt). Egyptian workers were exploited because they were cheap and easy to hire. When working in cotton industries and on infrastructures, they would be overworked in horrible working conditions, eventually leading to death. In fact, for the Suez Canal project, over one million Egyptian workers were forced to work and thousands died (Imperialism in Egypt). Last but not least, in World War I, as Britain's protectorate, Egypt was forced to send more than 1.5 million Egyptian soldiers to fight for the British and much of the country's infrastructure was seized for the army (Global Nonviolent Action Database).

These mismanagements upset the Egyptians and they wanted to end this. Saad Zaghlul, an Egyptian revolutionary who founded the Wafd Party, traveled to London and officially presented Egypt's demand for independence. In fear that the movement was gaining too much power, the British arrested Zaghlul and exiled him to Malta. Conversely, protests and strikes happened across the nation, known as the 1919 or the National Revolution. More than 10,000 Egyptians marched from Al Azhar to the Abdin Palace where they were joined by thousands more. Soon, similar demonstrations broke out in Alexandria, Tanta, Damanhur, Al Mansurah, and Al Fayyum (Wikipedia). Under the pressure, Britain declared limited independence for Egypt on February 28, 1922 (Egyptians Campaign for Independence). By June 18, 1956, Britain had withdrawn all its troops.

Egypt declared itself a republic (CIA World Factbook). Though its imperial history lies far in the past, Egypt remains influenced to this day. One positive impact is the rights women gained. Because women actively participated in the de-imperialization movements, they secured rights such as educational opportunities, occupational opportunities, and the right to vote. However, they still remain socially inferior to men. On the other hand, one negative impact is Egypt's increasing debt. Despite Britain recognizing Egypt's independence, Egypt remains obligated to repay them, a task they are incapable of. This is because during the imperial periods, Britain exploited the Egyptian economy for cash crops, neglecting Egypt's manufacturing market. Compounding the issue, due to scarce arable lands, Egypt imports a lot of food. Consequently, Egypt imports far more than it exports, exacerbating their international debt (What.Why.How).

Another negative impact is the unstable government. After Britain's departure, Egypt was left without any firm political structure capable of effectively governing the country. Though improvements have been made, corruption within the government remains a serious issue. Also, negative impacts manifest in the tension between Christians and Muslims. When Britain imperialized Egypt, their religion also influenced the Egyptians. The British policies and Capitulations - a system of legal and economic privileges granted by the Ottomans to Europeans - favored Christians over Muslims (Wikipedia). As a result, this practice was a significant factor in the development of religious tensions between Muslims and Christians, tensions that persist today and still incite conflicts.

Many countries, like Egypt, were ruthlessly imperialized by European countries. Yet, aside from history classes, most don't dwell on this brutal aspect of the past, convinced that it has no lingering impact. However, as demonstrated in this essay, imperial history continues to profoundly impact these countries. It's essential to recognize that every single event in our human history shapes the world today. Studying history not only allows us to understand our present world but also enables us to learn from our mistakes, in hopes of improving our world. Hopefully, as future generations learn about these tragic events, they won't repeat the mistakes of our ancestors.

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