Finding Poetics in History: the Enduring Influence of Aristotle

Introduction

The saying that history repeats itself is often used to describe wars, depressions, political events, and other significant occurrences. In the realm of theatre history, this adage can also be applied to Aristotle’s Poetics. This seminal work, though only 114 pages long, has served as a common thread woven through the evolution of theatre from 335 BCE to the present day. Aristotle’s Poetics is a crucial document that has significantly influenced the decisions of some of the earliest thespians, and its impact on history is immense, still playing an essential role in art today.

To fully appreciate its influence, it is important to examine Aristotle not only as a writer but also as a person, and to understand the fundamental principles laid out in The Poetics.

Aristotle: The Man Behind the Poetics

Aristotle was born in 384 BCE in Greece. Following the death of his father, he joined Plato’s Academy as a young student, where he stayed for about 20 years. During his time at the Academy, Aristotle made contributions to various fields, including philosophy, science, logic, history, and poetry. When Plato died, Aristotle left the Academy and traveled to Assus, continuing his and Plato’s work. In 343 BCE, he was recruited to teach Alexander the Great, the son of Phillip II. Aristotle later established his own institution, The Lyceum, where he thrived until it became unsafe for him, leading to his departure. Aristotle passed away in 322 BCE, leaving behind a legacy of work that continues to endure.

Among his most prominent works related to theatre is The Poetics, which explores the structure of Greek tragedy in great detail. To understand the significance of The Poetics, it is important to explore its historical context and the impact it had on the development of theatre.

The Influence of The Poetics on Greek Tragedy

The Poetics, first introduced at festivals in 432 BCE, provided a framework for understanding and analyzing Greek tragedy. During this time, most plays were mythical stories passed down through generations, often based on religious themes. For example, The Odyssey, a myth pertaining to the gods and written by Homer (whom Aristotle greatly respected), could be transformed into a theatrical production.

The earliest known playwrights, such as Arion and Thespis, were not widely recognized. However, Aeschylus emerged as the first playwright with surviving written works. His intellectual and thematically cohesive plays laid the foundation for future playwrights and served as a precursor to The Poetics. Sophocles, building upon Aeschylus’s work, was known for his superb plot construction and ability to build to a swift climax, as noted in Edwin Wilson and Alvin Goldfarb's Living Theatre.

One of Sophocles’s notable works, Oedipus the King, aligns closely with Aristotle’s guidelines in The Poetics. The play follows Aristotle’s key principles, such as a plot-driven narrative with continuous action, a sturdy structure that escalates tension, and a cathartic resolution. Sophocles crafted a character with a fatal flaw, leading to his downfall, while also maintaining the three unities of time, place, and action. The play emphasized universal ideas rather than specific historical events, and the spectacle was minimized, with violence occurring offstage. By adhering to these elements, Oedipus the King effectively aroused fear and pity in the audience, achieving the cathartic effect that Aristotle described.

In contrast, Euripides, another prominent playwright of the era, deviated from Aristotle’s principles. His plays featured stronger and more independent female characters and depicted gods in a more humanized manner, which led to a more realistic approach. Euripides’ varied style and less emphasis on plot were seen as departures from Aristotle’s guidelines.

The Structure and Key Concepts of The Poetics

Aristotle’s Poetics is divided into twenty-six chapters, with each chapter focusing on different aspects of drama. The first three chapters outline Aristotle’s systematic approach to studying poetry, emphasizing imitation as a key component of tragedy. He posits that actors must either imitate someone better or worse than themselves. Chapters four through seven discuss the differences between tragedy and comedy, the six essential elements of drama (plot, character, thought, diction, song, and spectacle), and the importance of a unified and exclusive plot.

Chapters eight and nine delve into the necessity of a cohesive plot structure, while chapters ten and eleven differentiate between simple and complex plots. Aristotle introduces the concept of a situational reversal, which involves a 180-degree shift in the action, and a scene of suffering, where characters experience agony or death. Chapters twelve and thirteen describe the specific parts of a script, such as the parode, stasimon, prologue, episode, exode, choric song, and commos.

For a perfect tragic script, Aristotle emphasizes the need for a complex plan, unity of action, and the ability to evoke fear and pity in the audience. The plot should have an unbreakable structure, with a pure and good hero possessing a singular flaw. Chapters fourteen and fifteen provide further guidance on structuring the plot to maximize emotional impact, while chapters sixteen and seventeen explore various types of recognition, such as logical deduction and recall from memory.

Chapters eighteen and nineteen discuss the role of the chorus and the importance of speech and rhetoric in arousing emotions. Chapters twenty and twenty-one cover the parts of language that can be used in a script, and chapters twenty-two and twenty-three emphasize the importance of using clear and current words. The final chapters, twenty-four through twenty-six, address the differences between epic and tragic forms, ultimately concluding that tragedy is superior.

The Legacy of The Poetics

The Poetics played a crucial role in the development of Roman and Asian theatre. During the Punic Wars, when Rome emerged victorious, Greek culture, including its theatre, became integrated into the Roman Empire. However, Roman theatre leaned towards popular entertainment rather than elevated concepts, resulting in a limited number of works influenced by The Poetics. Seneca, a notable Roman playwright, produced nine tragedies that, while influenced by Aristotle, emphasized spectacle and melodrama.

In Roman times, Horace wrote Ars Poetica, a work similar to The Poetics but less structured and detailed, focusing on fiction and general poetry. Horace's influence would later be felt in the neoclassical movement, which sought to revive classical ideals in theatre.

The influence of The Poetics extended to Asian theatre as well, with some scholars speculating that the foundation of Natyasastra may have drawn inspiration from Aristotle’s ideas. Shakuntala, a work with elements of recognition, reveals Greek influence on Asian theatre.

During the Middle Ages, theatre was predominantly religious, with God as the central element of productions. As a result, Aristotle’s Poetics was not as popular during this period. However, with the rise of the Italian Renaissance, interest in classical Greek tragedy was rekindled. The advent of the printing press allowed for the dissemination of early tragedy works, and Italian playwrights began producing their own plays influenced by Aristotle.

Neoclassicism, which emerged in Italy around the 1600s, was a movement that sought to adhere to the rules laid out by Aristotle and Horace. Neoclassical plays emphasized decorum, a five-act structure, unity of time and place, and the triumph of good over evil. These ideals spread across Europe, influencing drama in France and other countries.

Restoration drama, which emerged in the late 17th century, involved adapting popular plays to fit neoclassical or Aristotelian ideals. Shakespeare’s works, for example, were often modified to align with these principles. By the 1800s, neoclassicism began to wane, along with the direct influence of The Poetics.

Conclusion

While the influence of The Poetics is not as apparent today as it once was, its impact on theatre history is undeniable. Aristotle’s ideas have shaped the development of drama, providing a framework for understanding and analyzing theatrical works. Although modern theatre places a greater emphasis on innovation and creativity, elements of Aristotle’s work, such as plot structure, character development, and the evocation of emotion, continue to resonate. The Poetics will undoubtedly endure for generations to come, serving as a testament to Aristotle’s lasting legacy in the world of art and theatre.

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