African American Freedom Struggle

When Americans think of African-Americans in the Deep South before the Civil War, the first image that comes to mind is often one of slavery. However, this perception overlooks the complexity of African-American life during this period. While the institution of slavery dominated the South, many African-Americans managed to secure their freedom and lived in a state of semi-freedom even before the war led to the abolition of slavery. Free blacks resided in all parts of the United States, but the majority lived amongst the enslaved population in the South.

Despite their free status, they continued to be treated as less than citizens compared to their white counterparts, as discriminatory practices were deeply rooted in American society, especially during the Civil War.

Emancipation and Military Service

The issues of emancipation and military service were intricately linked from the outbreak of the Civil War. The attack on Fort Sumter triggered a rush to enroll in the United States Army by free black men. However, they were turned away due to a federal law from 1792 that prohibited African-Americans from bearing arms for the United States Armed Forces, despite their service in the American Revolution and the War of 1812. In Boston, disappointed volunteers met and adopted resolutions calling on the government to amend its laws to allow them to enlist (Freeman, 2017).

The Lincoln administration grappled with the idea of recruiting black troops, fearing that such a move could cause the border states to secede. When General John C. Frémont in Missouri and General David Hunter in South Carolina issued proclamations emancipating slaves in their military regions and allowing them to enlist, their orders were promptly revoked by their superiors. This led Congress to pass the Second Confiscation and Militia Act on July 17, 1862, which freed slaves owned by Confederate Army masters. Two days later, slavery in the United States was abolished, and on July 22, President Lincoln presented the preliminary draft of the Emancipation Proclamation to his Cabinet.

Following the Union Army's successful repulsion of Lee’s first invasion of the North at Antietam, Maryland, black recruitment was pursued with renewed vigor. Volunteers from South Carolina, Tennessee, and Massachusetts filled the first approved African American regiments (Freeman, 2018). Enrollment was initially moderate until African-American leaders like Frederick Douglass urged black men to become soldiers to ensure their eventual full citizenship. This call to arms resonated, and in May 1863, the Government established the Bureau of Colored Troops to manage the burgeoning numbers of African American soldiers. Despite their willingness and capability, black units were not utilized in combat as widely as they could have been due to prevailing racial discrimination. Segregated units were formed with black enlisted men, typically led by white officers and black noncommissioned officers. Disparities extended to pay, with black soldiers initially earning $10 per month, minus a $3 clothing deduction, resulting in a net pay of $7 (Beard, 2018), while their white counterparts received $13 monthly without deductions. This unequal pay highlighted their inferior status within the Union Army.

The Impact of the New York Draft Riots

The New York Draft Riots of July 1863 exemplified the intense racial tensions and economic disparities of the era. The unrest was fueled by the resentment of working-class New Yorkers over a new federal draft law that imposed military service obligations during the Civil War. The draft law required all male citizens between the ages of 20 and 35, and all unmarried men between 35 and 45, to be subject to military duty. However, wealthier individuals could avoid the draft by hiring substitutes or paying a $300 fee (equivalent to about $5,800 today), a sum that represented the annual salary for most American workers, making draft avoidance nearly impossible for all but the richest men. Aggravating the situation was the exemption of African-Americans from the draft, as they were not considered citizens at the time.

Riots over the draft occurred in several cities, including Detroit and Boston, but none were as violent as those in New York City. Anti-war newspapers published attacks on the new draft law, fueling the anger of white workers in the lead-up to the city’s first draft lottery on July 11, 1863. The riots began on July 13, with thousands of white workers attacking military and government buildings. They directed their violence primarily towards those who attempted to stop them and later targeted African-American citizens, their homes, and businesses. In one infamous event, a mob stormed the Colored Orphan Asylum, a four-story building housing over 200 children, looting and setting it on fire, though they spared the children (New, 2018). The most severe violence was reserved for African-American men, many of whom were lynched or brutally beaten to death. The official death toll of the New York City draft riots was 119, but estimates suggest the actual number of fatalities could have been as high as 1,200. The riots had a devastating impact on the city’s African-American community, which saw its population decline from 12,414 in 1860 to 9,945 in 1865, the lowest since 1820 (New, 2018).

Post-War Challenges and Reconstruction

The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 liberated African-Americans in the rebel states, and the Thirteenth Amendment, passed after the Civil War, freed all U.S. slaves wherever they were. The Fourteenth Amendment, passed in 1868, granted African-Americans citizenship, and the Fifteenth Amendment, passed in 1870, guaranteed their right to vote. However, the Reconstruction period from 1865 to 1877 proved to be one of frustration and disappointment for African-Americans, as these new constitutional provisions were frequently ignored, particularly in the South (Freeman, 2018).

Following the Civil War, former slaves endeavored to give meaning to their newfound freedom by reuniting families separated by slavery, establishing their own churches and schools, seeking economic independence, and demanding equal civil and political rights (Pitz, 2018). However, Southern blacks faced the same challenges that Northern blacks had endured: living as free people in a society that was often hostile to them. One freedman, Houston Hartsfield Holloway, expressed this sentiment, stating, "For we colored people did not know how to be free and the white people did not know how to have a free colored person about them" (Beard, 2018). The nation was ill-prepared to address the question of full citizenship for its newly freed black population (Reconstruction, 2018).

The end of slavery inevitably led to conflicts between African-Americans seeking meaningful freedom and independence from white control and whites attempting to preserve as much of the old social order as possible. Under President Andrew Johnson's leadership in 1865 and 1866, new Southern state legislatures passed restrictive "black codes" to control the labor and behavior of former slaves and other African-Americans (Beard, 2018). These black codes were designed to limit the freedom of African-Americans and ensure their availability as a cheap labor force after the abolition of slavery (History, 2018). Freed blacks continued to be treated as less than citizens because discriminatory practices remained deeply embedded in American society, especially during the Civil War.

Despite the abolition of slavery, African-Americans continued to endure discrimination and mistreatment similar to what they had experienced while in bondage. They suffered brutal violence and mistreatment from their white counterparts. In comparison to their experiences before the Civil War, former slaves, now free, still encountered inequalities, unfair treatment, and overt racism in the post-war period.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the journey of African-Americans towards freedom and equality during and after the Civil War was marked by both progress and persistent challenges. While the Emancipation Proclamation and the subsequent amendments to the Constitution granted African-Americans legal freedoms and citizenship, the reality of their lives was often starkly different. Discrimination, violence, and systemic inequalities continued to plague their existence. The struggle for true equality was far from over, and the Reconstruction period highlighted the difficulties in reconciling a nation torn apart by war and deeply entrenched racial prejudices. The resilience and determination of African-Americans during this period laid the foundation for future civil rights movements, as they continued to fight for the full realization of their rights as citizens of the United States.

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