Same-Sex Relations: Cultural Perspectives

Although the issue of "gay rights" is often viewed as a modern phenomenon, historical evidence reveals that same-sex behaviors and relationships have existed across both Western and non-Western cultures for centuries. This essay aims to analyze the status of sexual orientation across cultures from three distinct perspectives: age differences, gender differences, and role differences. Despite the presence of same-sex behaviors in various cultures, these relationships are often viewed negatively in contemporary societies.

Keywords: Boy-inseminating rituals, Two-spirit roles, Mollys, Cross-dressing, Transvestite

In recent decades, sexual orientation has garnered significant attention worldwide (Herek, 2000a; 2000b).

In the United States, issues like gay marriage and military policies have become focal points. In other regions, political and religious discrimination against sexual minorities has sparked debates over laws limiting the rights of non-heterosexuals (Herek, 2009). While some societies enforce laws persecuting homosexuality, others have expanded their gender definitions to be more inclusive.

Ethnographic studies suggest that heterosexuality is not the sole form of sexual expression, with various reports highlighting the cultural norms and traditions that influence sexual orientation (Blackwood, 2000). The rapid evolution of sexual ideas continues to shape gender identity and cross-cultural sexual orientation (Anderson & Fetner, 2008). While a comprehensive account of non-heterosexual orientation is beyond the scope of this essay, a discussion of sexuality across cultures reveals how modern civilization is shaped by time, location, and heritage, influencing perceptions of sexual orientation.

Age Differences

In Ancient Greece, same-sex relations between older men and younger males in their late teens or early twenties were prevalent (Herdt & Polen, n.d). These relationships were seen as a means to instill virtues such as virility, honor, courage, and nobility. Unlike today’s Western culture, where the gender of the sexual partner is crucial, ancient Greeks focused on the sexual act itself. As long as the older male was the penetrator and maintained sexual relations with women, it was not considered outside the norm (Herdt, 2018). However, same-sex behavior between men of the same age was stigmatized and punished. Similar practices existed in Arabia, Korea, and China.

The Pacific Islanders engaged in boy-inseminating rituals where young males were inseminated orally or anally to symbolize masculinity (Herdt & Polen, n.d). Following these rituals, marriages were often arranged for the young males. In Sambia, Papua New Guinea, older males were attracted to prepubertal males (7-13 years old) (Herdt & Polen, n.d). The attraction ceased once the boys grew facial hair, and the boys then participated in inseminating others. This practice contrasts with the Greeks, who preferred post-pubescent males. In Sambia, homoerotic relations among adults were non-existent, and there was no term for homosexuality (Herdt, 2018).

Gender Differences

Many cultures across Asia, the Pacific, North and South America, and Africa allow same-sex behaviors by males who assume female gender roles (Herdt & Polen, n.d.). This acceptance is less common for women. The Plains Indians of pre-colonial North America recognized individuals who identified outside their gender as two-spirit. During a ceremony, a baby was placed between a basket and a bow and arrow, and the chosen object determined if the baby was two-spirited (Herdt & Polen, n.d.). For example, a female baby choosing the bow and arrow indicated masculine qualities. The Polynesian Fa’fafina role, similar to the two-spirit role, was prevalent among biological males expressing feminine qualities across the Asian Pacific region (Herdt & Polen, n.d.). Surprisingly, cultures defined by gender roles tend to be more tolerant of same-sex relationships, socializing males with same-sex attractions into female roles and vice versa.

Role Differences

Sexuality is closely linked to societal definitions of gender and beliefs about what is "natural and normal" (Herdt, 2018). Those deviating from these norms are often seen as subversive, challenging political and religious hierarchies.

In complex societies like ancient Japan, Korea, and Shakespearean England, same-sex relationships were permitted for males performing as actors or within certain religious institutions, such as Buddhist monks or shamans (Herdt & Polen, n.d). In ancient Japanese plays, women portrayed all roles, whereas men played all roles in Shakespeare's plays. In London, pubs known as Mollys allowed men to dress and act as women (Herdt & Polen, n.d.). People attracted to the same gender adopted various terms such as Molly, queer, fairy, or homosexual in Western societies. Outside the West, these cultural terms often held secretive or privileged meanings, encouraging individuals to explore same-gender desires (Herdt, 2018).

During the Pansy Craze in the United States, gay and bisexual individuals performed as drag kings and queens in cities like New York. Gene Malin, famous for impersonating Mae West, became the highest-paid entertainer in New York's nightclubs (Ong, 2018). However, the mid-1930s saw a moral panic about homosexuality, forcing many gay-friendly clubs underground (Ong, 2018).

In the Netherlands, women cross-dressed as men to gain social status (Herdt & Polen, n.d.). This practice led to the term transvestite, describing individuals with a sexual interest in cross-dressing. In the United States, women also cross-dressed for various reasons. During Victorian Britain, women were arrested for cross-dressing and charged with fraud rather than indecency, the usual punishment for males (Ong, 2018). While not all cross-dressing women explored their sexuality, some wore men’s clothing to protest restrictive female attire. In England, cross-dressing women were called Sapphists, named after the ancient Greek poet Sappho, believed to be lesbian (Herdt & Polen, n.d.). Since the 1960s, the LGBTQ+ community has adopted "butch" and "fem" roles in homosexuality.

Conclusion

This essay aimed to demonstrate that same-sex relations are accepted in various cultures, primarily between older and younger males, with gender differences allowing men to adopt women's roles and vice versa. Additionally, the arts and clothing have historically facilitated same-sex behaviors. Despite diverse forms of sexual expression worldwide, sexual minorities continue to face negative perceptions in contemporary society. This negativity often stems from the predominant view that sexual orientation is inherently linked to gender and sex, leading to discrimination and adverse life outcomes for those deviating from traditional norms.

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