Party System in India

Introduction

In modern times, political parties have many vital roles as pre-conditions of the democratic system. They show a crucial link between society, various institutions of government, and the people. And every political party has its ideology. The party system in India reflects the complexities of its diverse society, shaped by historical, social, and economic factors. The party system originated from a 'political center.' In the political center, there were general socio-economic backgrounds; the people of an upper caste belonged to the political elite class, as educated, urban, predominantly middle and upper class.

The party system is related to some parts—Social, Economic, Political, and International systems. This essay will examine how the party system in India has evolved, its key challenges, and its ongoing role in shaping democracy.

The Role of Political Parties

Political parties mobilize people for their support and vote. They claim some manifesto, form chains of interest groups, and link them to the government in power. When these parties had no power then, they worked like an opposition in organizing protests against the government. This dynamic reflects the critical function of political parties as both representatives of the public and watchdogs of governmental actions. However, where the political parties are found, which are not developed nations, many parties participate freely, and popular support is infrequent. The party system is mainly based on historical roots, civil traditions, cultural orientations, and economy. In India, the party system is mainly shaped by the country's vast regional, artistic, and linguistic diversity, making it one of the most complex political landscapes in the world. In our country, the diversities of regional culture, the country's broad geographic spread, the state's character, the demands of social change, and economic development affect the character of the party system. This interplay between regional identities and national priorities demonstrates the adaptability of the party system in India, ensuring that it remains relevant across generations.

Foundations of the Party System

In our country, the Indian National Congress was the first significant political organization, established in 1885 by A.O. Hume. Within this party, political groups, speakers, and negotiators played a crucial role in shaping early political discourse. After the Congress, many other parties emerged, each reflecting the diverse socio-political fabric of India.

India's party system evolved into three main models: the bi-party, multiparty, and one-party systems. The bi-party and multiparty systems give voters choices, enabling competition and accountability. In contrast, the one-party system limits these options, often centralizing power. For a functioning democracy, a robust party system is essential to ensure leadership that represents the interests and aspirations of the citizens.

Many question whether traditional political parties can effectively address current challenges. The rise of crises and growing distrust among citizens has encouraged the exploration of alternative political activities, challenging conventional party structures. These shifts underscore the need for parties to adapt to evolving public expectations and deliver solutions that resonate with modern realities.

Evolution of the Party System

When any party does not have a majority of the seats to form the government, coalitions become necessary. In India, much like the Westminster democracies of Europe, the post-independence period was marked by one-party dominance at the national level. The Indian National Congress (INC) established itself as the central political force, shaping governance for the first two decades after independence.

The Ninth Lok Sabha elections in 1989 marked a significant turning point in India's political history. These elections introduced a phase of coalition governments, reflecting a diversification in political representation and priorities. Initially, during the early years of independence, the lack of strong opposition meant that the Congress party enjoyed widespread support. Many citizens, having experienced colonial rule, viewed Congress as synonymous with freedom and stability. However, the political landscape diversified over time, and citizens began demanding alternatives to single-party rule.

In today's context, party loyalty often sparks heated debates and even conflicts among supporters. This illustrates the deep emotional connection many people feel towards their preferred political ideologies. Such polarization highlights both the strength and challenges of India's vibrant democracy, underscoring the evolving nature of its party system.

Nowadays, some important groups have emerged in Indian politics, with university students gaining prominence as political actors. During the national movement, university students played a crucial role as a support base for the independence struggle. After gaining independence, however, the nature of student activism began to shift. While the issues before independence were largely clear and focused on ending British rule and achieving major social changes, post-independence student conflict often revolves around local issues, university problems, or regional political struggles, rather than national questions.

In India, the administrative consolidation of the Congress party set the foundation for the political mobilization of the masses. The Indian National Congress continued to play a pivotal role, establishing a strong political system. The history of the Indian National Congress can be divided into three distinct phases, each marking significant developments in the evolution of the party system in the country.

First Phase (1885–1905)

The period from 1885 to 1905 is known as the 'Moderate Phase' in Indian political history. During this time, the leaders who emerged as political figures were known as moderates. They were primarily educated Western-educated Indians from the upper and middle classes who advocated for gradual political reforms within the British colonial system. This phase was marked by a movement that sought to work within the British system to achieve modest reforms, rather than seeking immediate independence.

Several notable leaders emerged during this phase, such as Dadabhai Naoroji, who came to be known as the 'Grand Old Man of India.' Naoroji was the first Indian to become a member of the British House of Commons, making significant contributions to the political landscape of India. Additionally, Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee became the first president of the Indian National Congress (INC). Subramania Ayer was another key figure, founding the Tamil newspaper 'Swadesamitran' and criticizing British imperialism through his writings in 'The Hindu.' Ayer was also a co-founder of the Madras Sabha, which played a critical role in fostering political engagement among the Indian middle class.

The moderates had several important demands, such as providing mass education, securing basic rights for the people, and organizing public opinion in favor of reforms. Among their key demands were the separation of the executive from the judiciary, reducing land revenue taxes, ending peasant oppression, and promoting freedom of speech and expression. They also sought to develop modern capitalist industries in India. The moderates followed peaceful, constitutional methods to achieve these aims, employing petitions, resolutions, delegations, and meetings as tools to voice their demands. One of their central strategies was the '3P' approach—Prayers, Petition, and Protest—which became a hallmark of their political tactics.

Second Phase (1905–1916)

The period from 1905 to 1916 is known for the Swadeshi Movement, the rise of extremism, and the Minto-Morley Reforms. This phase marked a significant shift in India's political landscape, with more radical nationalist ideas challenging the moderate approach that had previously dominated the Indian National Congress.

Several factors contributed to the rise of extremism during this period. The failure of the reforms introduced under the Indian Councils Act of 1892 left many Indians disillusioned with the moderate approach. The British government did not take sufficient measures to alleviate the suffering caused by famines and economic hardships, leading to the death of nearly ninety lakh people. At the same time, the moderates were unable to force the British to implement meaningful reforms.

The Partition of Bengal in 1905 acted as a catalyst for the rise of militant nationalism. The partition led to widespread protests, and the National Congress united in opposition to it, supporting the Swadeshi and Boycott Movements in Bengal. This movement called for the rejection of British goods and the promotion of indigenous industries, becoming a powerful symbol of Indian resistance to British colonial rule.

As the movement gained momentum, a struggle arose within the Congress between the moderates and the militant nationalists over the leadership of the party. While the moderates wanted to maintain a constitutional approach, the extremists called for more direct action against the British. Eventually, a compromise was reached, with the respected leader Dadabhai Naoroji chosen to mediate the conflict. His leadership helped reconcile the differences between the two factions within the Congress.

Third Phase (1916–1947)

The third phase of the Indian National Congress (INC), spanning from 1916 to 1947, is most closely associated with the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi's adoption of nonviolence and Satyagraha became the cornerstone of the struggle against British colonial rule. He launched several movements across India, including in places like Kheda, Bihar, Ahmedabad, and others. These mass movements, including the Salt March and the non-cooperation campaign, attracted millions of followers, including key figures such as Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.

During this period, Gandhi's leadership faced numerous challenges. He was frequently arrested by the British authorities, yet his unwavering commitment to nonviolent resistance inspired a generation of Indians. The period also saw significant events such as the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in 1919, where British troops opened fire on an unarmed crowd, further galvanizing the Indian independence movement. Additionally, the Khilafat Movement, led by Indian Muslims, sought to protect the Ottoman Caliphate and supported the broader anti-colonial struggle.

Within the INC, internal divisions began to surface. After the failure of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922, the Congress underwent significant changes. A split occurred within the party, leading to the formation of the Swaraj Party in 1923, led by Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das. The Swaraj Party aimed to participate more directly in the British-dominated legislative councils. In the 1923 elections to the Legislative Councils, the Swaraj Party found success, with Motilal Nehru emerging as a leader at the national level, while Chittaranjan Das took charge in Bengal. The Swaraj Party played an instrumental role in amending key provisions of the Government of India Act of 1919, advocating for greater Indian participation in governance.

The Congress Socialist Party (CSP), established in 1934, represented a left-wing faction within the INC. Led by Acharya Narendra Dev as president and Jayaprakash Narayan as general secretary, the CSP aimed to push the party toward more radical social and economic reforms. Their first meeting, held in October 1934, declared the need for the development of the economy and the promotion of trade as key issues. The CSP sought to mobilize the Indian masses not only against colonial rule but also to address issues of class and social justice within India itself.

After Independence

After gaining independence in 1947, India was divided into two nations—India and Pakistan—by the British. Pakistan itself was later divided into East Pakistan and West Pakistan, with East Pakistan eventually becoming Bangladesh. The partition created significant challenges, both for the newly formed countries and their populations.

The period following India's independence was marked by significant difficulties in terms of political, economic, and social consolidation. The people of India faced numerous uncertainties about how the newly independent nation would grow, what its systems would be, and how it would manage its diverse population. India had to not only build a functioning government but also tackle issues like poverty, illiteracy, and economic instability, which had been exacerbated by colonial rule.

Tensions between India and Pakistan arose from the division of assets and the refugee problem. Following partition, many people were displaced, with some wanting to remain in Pakistan while others sought to live in India. This led to conflicts and wars, notably the Kashmir conflict, which remains a central issue between the two nations. Jammu and Kashmir, a strategically important region, became a flashpoint. At the time of partition, the region's Hindu ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, was faced with the decision of whether to align Kashmir with India or Pakistan, despite the fact that 75% of Kashmir's population was Muslim. This complex situation led to debates, with some, like Sheikh Abdullah, advocating for Kashmir's integration with India, while others proposed it should be independent or join Pakistan.

The National Congress of India (1952–1967)

After independence, the multiparty system was gradually taking root in India, although the Indian National Congress (INC) dominated the political landscape. The first general elections held in 1951 saw several political groups vying for influence, including the Congress, the Socialist Party, and the Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party. Other prominent parties included the Communist Party of India (CPI), the Hindu Mahasabha, the Ram Rajya Parishad, and the Bharatiya Janata Sangh (BJS), along with regional parties such as Tamil Nadu Congress, Praja Party, and Jharkhand Party.

The first elections were a significant milestone for Indian democracy. In the 1951 elections, the Congress Party won 45% of the votes, securing 364 out of 489 seats in the Lok Sabha. At the state level, Congress continued its dominance, capturing 68% of the seats with over 42% of the vote share. Despite the participation of 14 parties in the election, only five were able to retain national party status, including Congress, the Socialist Party, the KMPP, CPI, and BJS. Congress's success was largely attributed to its historical role in the independence movement, which gave it broad public support, even as India's democratic institutions were still evolving.

Decline of Congress (1967–1989)

In the 1967 elections, Congress experienced a significant decline. Its number of seats decreased drastically, and it lost much of its political power. During this time, the rise of Indira Gandhi as a central figure led to a shift in the party's focus. She centralized power in the executive branch, diminishing the influence of the party apparatus itself. Her decisions, particularly during the Emergency period (1975-1977), empowered the union government but alienated many within Congress. Many party members left Congress and joined the opposition, including the Janata Party, which emerged as a significant force during this time.

In 1977, the Janata Party came to power, marking the first time that Congress had been defeated at the national level. This defeat led to a decline in public support for Congress, and many began to question the party's future. In 1980, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) was formed, resolving issues related to dual membership within its ranks. The BJP's emergence came at a pivotal moment following the assassination of Indira Gandhi. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, a prominent leader of the BJP, aligned his party with the ideas of Gandhi, particularly focusing on supporting the Hindu majority in North India.

Meanwhile, Congress faced increasing allegations of corruption, which further diminished its credibility and power. These challenges to the party's integrity contributed to its weakening position on the national stage.

Coalition Era (1989–till date)

The period from 1989 to 1996 saw the rise of coalition governments at the national level. During this time, the Indian political landscape shifted away from single-party dominance to a system where multiple parties were required to form a government. In the initial years, a coalition government was formed under the leadership of V.P. Singh, who received support from both the Left and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). However, the political alliances were unstable, and the government soon faced internal contradictions. Following this, Chandra Shekhar and I.K. Gujaral formed governments with Congress support, but these too were minority governments that relied on defections to maintain power.

As the political scenario evolved, new parties began emerging, often based on caste identities. Parties like the BSP (Bahujan Samaj Party), SP (Samajwadi Party), and RJD (Rashtriya Janata Dal) rose to prominence during this period, contributing to a "silent revolution" in Indian politics. The political landscape became increasingly fragmented, making it more challenging for any single party to secure a majority.

In 1990, the Ram Janmabhoomi Rath Yatra, led by L.K. Advani, played a crucial role in increasing the BJP's visibility. The event significantly enhanced BJP's national presence, propelling it toward greater influence in Indian politics. However, despite its rise, the BJP was unable to secure an outright majority in subsequent elections. It had to depend on coalition strategies to form the government.

In the period between 1996 to 1999, Congress, with the support of the Janata Dal, briefly came to power. In 1998, BJP, under Atal Bihari Vajpayee, formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government after securing a majority. However, in the 1999 elections, NDA won a decisive victory, consolidating BJP's position in the Indian political system. Despite these successes, BJP faced setbacks in the 2004 elections, where it lost to the UPA (United Progressive Alliance), led by Congress, with Manmohan Singh at the helm of the government for the next ten years.

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